persuasive writing comprehension research

We know very little about when to teach certain strategies in development. Comprehension strategy instruction improves comprehension for typically developing (e.g., National Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHD], 2000) and struggling readers (e.g., Gersten, Fuchs, Williams, & Baker, 2001). Lean Library can solve it. Strategic monitoring of text understanding matters (Oakhill, Hartt, & Samols, 2005). A Guided Reading Pack aimed at Y5m/Y6s readers in the form of a persuasive leaflet about the fictional theme park 'Roald Dahl Land'. Also, strategy instruction may result in a shallow representation of a text and interfere with deeper processing of the content (Compton, Miller, Elleman, & Steacy, 2014). Reading comprehension is one of the most complex cognitive activities in which humans engage, making it difficult to teach, measure, and research. 3rd through 5th Grades. the site you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Variability in text difficulty impacts reading comprehension (McNamara, Graesser, & Louwerse, 2012). Therefore, research and educational decision making must use multiple tests and interpret their scores based on the specific test’s characteristics. So, increasing background knowledge and vocabulary is only part of the answer to improving reading comprehension. What distinguishes students on some standardized tests is the ability to understand more difficult passages (ACT, 2006; Kulesz, Francis, Barnes, & Fletcher, 2016). This review focuses on higher order comprehension skills but acknowledges the foundational role that efficient word recognition plays in reading comprehension (see Perfetti & Stafura, 2014). (, McNamara, D. S., Graesser, A. C., Louwerse, M. M. (, Miller, A. C., Davis, N., Gilbert, J. K., Cho, S. J., Toste, J. R., Street, J., Cutting, L. E. (, National Center for Education Statistics . (Black) Guided Reading Pack. The e-mail addresses that you supply to use this service will not be used for any other purpose without your consent. Is it recess? IES has also supported important research initiatives in reading comprehension such as the Reading for Understanding initiatives in which interdisciplinary research teams examined different aspects of development in language and reading development. This is compounded for less skilled readers who have knowledge deficits (Compton, Miller, Gilbert, & Steacy, 2013), difficulties understanding expository text (Saenz & Fuchs, 2002), and are often pulled from content area classes for additional reading instruction (Banilower et al., 2013). KS2 Identifying Persuasive Advert Vocabulary. Rich instruction in knowledge acquisition and vocabulary development must start as early as possible and continue throughout children’s school career. Similarly, the RAND reading model, another influential reading framework for research and practice, defined reading comprehension as the process of “extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language” (RAND Reading Study Group, 2002, p. 11). Reading comprehension requires the coordination of multiple linguistic and cognitive processes including, but not limited to, word reading ability, working memory, inference generation, comprehension monitoring, vocabulary, and prior knowledge (Perfetti, Landi, & Oakhill, 2005). Unfortunately, large individual differences in vocabulary size exist in early readers and persist through elementary school (Biemiller & Slonim, 2001). Unfortunately, these scores have remained relatively flat for many years and have led many educators, researchers, and policy makers to question how well students are being prepared for a job market that increasingly requires self-learning, analytical skills, and transferable knowledge (e.g., Goldman & Pellegrino, 2015). In the last part of the article, we consider solutions for translating research to practice and policies for improving instruction. Hairrell, A. Component models such as the direct and inferential mediation model (DIME; Ahmed et al., 2016; Cromley, Snyder-Hogan, & Luciw-Dubas, 2010; Oslund, Clemens, Simmons, & Simmons, 2018; Oslund, Clemens, Simmons, Smith, & Simmons, 2016) have been fairly consistent in their findings. Other generative word learning strategies that go beyond learning individual words—such as learning to use context to derive word meanings (Fukkink & deGlopper, 1998) and morphological analysis (Goodwin & Ahn, 2013)—also improve word learning. This review focuses on comprehension theory and instruction, but measurement is crucial in comprehension research and practice. Programs focusing on social studies content have also shown success at promoting knowledge acquisition and reading comprehension (e.g., Guthrie & Klauda, 2014; Vaughn et al., 2013). What happens when you teach children to make inferences while reading? Once children start independently reading, vocabulary acquisition becomes dependent on exposure to print, not oral language or instruction. Most states allow different types of text complexity measurement systems to ensure students are exposed to increasingly complex texts over time. Mathematics and Reading Develop Together in Young Children: Practical and Policy Considerations, Recommendations From Cognitive Psychology for Enhancing the Teaching of Natural-Science Categories. This model highlights the context-dependent nature of comprehension. Vocabulary simplifications for children: A special case of “motherese”? Besides globally measuring deep learning, few diagnostic tests pinpoint specific difficulties children encounter in comprehension (Francis et al., 2006). To increase reading comprehension, educators will need to provide early and sustained instruction in knowledge, vocabulary, inference generation, and comprehension monitoring. Effective inference instructional techniques include teaching students to use their background knowledge and integrate it with the information in the text, self-generated elaborations, graphic organizers that connect concepts to one another, and text clues (e.g., Elbro & Buch-Iversen, 2013; Kendeou et al., 2016). Text, teacher questions, follow-up work, vocabulary activities and SPAG activities included. Across studies, vocabulary, inference-making, and background knowledge all influence, both directly and indirectly, reading comprehension from adolescent to young adult readers. Compared to written language, oral language experiences do not provide enough unknown words to foster substantial vocabulary growth (Hayes & Ahrens, 1988). Some society journals require you to create a personal profile, then activate your society account, You are adding the following journals to your email alerts, Did you struggle to get access to this article? Sign in here to access free tools such as favourites and alerts, or to access personal subscriptions, If you have access to journal content via a university, library or employer, sign in here, Research off-campus without worrying about access issues. An early and sustained focus on developing background knowledge, vocabulary, inference, and comprehension monitoring skills is necessary to improve reading comprehension across grade levels. Most theories of comprehension align with Kintsch’s (1988) construction integration (CI) model. Playground Equipment (Sapphire) Guided Reading Pack. As part of the Reading for Understanding (RFU) initiative funded by the Institutes of Education Sciences (IES), one research team has designed a measure intended to capture deeper comprehension than current multiple choice tests (Sabatini, O’Reilly, Halderman, & Bruce, 2014). (, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development . Comprehension monitoring is a metacognitive skill that refers to readers’ ability to reflect on their understanding of a written text (Language and Reading Research Consortium & Yeomans-Maldonado, 2017). Includes a variety of worksheets and writing prompts for students. Improving adolescent reading comprehension will require a concerted effort from researchers, educators, and policymakers to forgo short-term gains on measures that tap low-level comprehension for long-term solutions that take years to develop. A Guided Reading Pack is aimed at Sapphire Book Band Readers in the form of a persuasive letter to the head teacher about proposed new playground equipment. In this way, readers integrate information from the text with their background knowledge to form an overall mental representation. . Often, the focus of instruction becomes the strategy itself (e.g., learning how to make main idea statements in different texts), instead of flexibly using the strategy to build a coherent representation of the texts being read. Not only does inference ability predict reading comprehension, it is also malleable through instruction. L. No. In a meta-analysis of inference intervention studies, teaching inferences improved general comprehension as well as inferential and literal comprehension skills (Elleman, 2017). To identify which components are worth measuring, some components serve as “pressure points” that, if changed, would significantly impact students’ comprehension ability. Write a persuasive essay to show that you agree or disagree with the following statement: Keeping a wild animal in a zoo is inhumane. However, these methods are not making their way into practitioners’ hands. (, Barth, A. E., Barnes, M., Francis, D., Vaughn, S., York, M. (, Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., Weismer, S. E. (, Compton, D. L., Miller, A. C., Elleman, A. M., Steacy, L. M. (, Compton, D. L., Miller, A. C., Gilbert, J. K., Steacy, L. M. (, Cromley, J. G., Snyder-Hogan, L. E., Luciw-Dubas, U. Two reviews examining the impact of vocabulary instruction on comprehension found gains on comprehension measures that contained the taught words, but not for general comprehension measures (Elleman, Lindo, Morphy, & Compton, 2009; Wright & Cervetti, 2017). It is unclear when it is most beneficial to start teaching advanced disciplinary strategies. One framework, the Simple View of Reading (SVR), posits that reading comprehension is the product of word decoding and linguistic comprehension (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Claire (our CEO) recently did a live video on Facebook to show you the automated programmes to help you fill the gaps in September. Another question to resolve is how much time to spend on strategies. Current policies advocate evidence-based instructional policies. View or download all content the institution has subscribed to. Also, students with poor comprehension are passive in applying their knowledge and demonstrate difficulties making inferences, even when they have the necessary background knowledge to do so (Barnes et al., 1996). I have read and accept the terms and conditions, View permissions information for this article. As useful as the model has been, it does not explicate the subcomponents of language or cognitive processes that underlie reading comprehension (Catts, 2018). The multifaceted nature of reading comprehension is reflected in component models that consider subcomponents of comprehension. For instance, in a study examining reader, text, and test characteristics (Kulesz et al., 2016) adolescent readers with better vocabulary and background knowledge outperformed others on a standardized reading comprehension measure. Sharing links are not available for this article. A person may achieve a clear understanding of a text when the text is easy and the task simple (e.g., answering multiple choice questions), but the same reader may struggle when encountering complex text on an unfamiliar topic. Inference generation is a general skill important for communication and learning at all stages of development. Research should examine which strategies are most generally effective, which specific strategies at what ages, and how long instruction should last. Advancing our students’ language and literacy: The challenge of complex texts, Validation of the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model of reading comprehension in grades 7 through 12, The effects of knowledge availability and knowledge accessibility on coherence and elaborative inferencing in children from six to fifteen years of age, Inferential processing among adequate and struggling adolescent comprehenders and relations to reading comprehension, Estimating root word vocabulary growth in normative and advantaged populations: Evidence for a common sequence of vocabulary acquisition, Inference making ability and its relation to comprehension failure in young children, The simple view of reading: Advancements and false impressions, Language deficits in poor comprehenders: A case for the simple view of reading, The sixth pillar of reading instruction: Knowledge development. Some researchers are concerned about the potential negative impact of increasing text difficulty at younger ages or with less skilled readers (Hiebert & Mesmer, 2013). Comparing good and poor comprehenders (matched on decoding and vocabulary) shows differences on inferential tasks at the word, sentence, and passage level (Cain & Oakhill, 1999). What is unclear from research is how to do this most effectively. Young readers and less skilled readers demonstrate weaknesses in detecting inconsistencies within a text (Oakhill et al., 2005). Use these worksheets to supplement your persuasive writing unit. Comprehension strategy instruction is one of the most highly recommended instructional methods for improving comprehension (e.g., NICHD, 2000). FABBS members have access to this journal as part of their membership. One area of growing interest is the use of practice-embedded educational research (Snow, 2015) in which researchers and practitioners partner to identify solutions for real problems in practice settings using rigorous research methods. Evidence-based programs for increasing vocabulary and comprehension (e.g., Word Generation and STARI) have been successfully developed and widely disseminated using this research framework (Snow, 2015). One federal agency, IES, has taken an active role in the promotion of evidence-based practices through the evaluation of programs (e.g., What Works Clearinghouse) and the dissemination of findings (e.g., practitioner-friendly practice guides containing practices and strategies vetted through science). Similarly, vocabulary instruction must be broad and include systematic instruction in academic vocabulary and word learning strategies. . A Guided Reading Pack aimed at Y3m/Y4d/Y5e Readers in the form of a persuasive text about why the writer believes Roald Dahl is the greatest children's author. Awaiting more information, practitioners should teach inference generation and comprehension monitoring across development, while simultaneously teaching vocabulary and domain knowledge. Having covered some contemporary theories and research in reading comprehension, we consider why reading scores for U.S. adolescents have stagnated. We conclude with possible solutions for translating research to practice and policies for improving reading comprehension instruction. Considering only researcher designed comprehension measures, while all readers benefited from vocabulary instruction, less skilled readers benefited more than typical readers, highlighting the importance of vocabulary for these students (Elleman et al., 2009). Most interventions included fewer than 10 hr of instruction, implying that teaching inference strategies is useful, and extended practice as a context-independent skill may not be necessary (Willingham, 2017). Stagnant scores of adolescents are likely due to multiple reasons including the ones outlined in this article. When prompted, even preschool age children can generate causal inferences about events (van den Broek, Lorch, & Thurlow, 1996). 114-95 § 114 Stat. Text, teacher questions, follow-up work, vocabulary activities and SPAG activities included. One first step is for all states to require that teachers are knowledgeable about evidence-based literacy practices and have expertise in the content they plan to teach. Indeed, comprehension tests are not highly correlated with one another, differentially measure underlying skills, and cannot reliably identify children with comprehension difficulties across different tests (Cutting & Scarborough, 2006; Keenan & Meenan, 2014). Access to society journal content varies across our titles. Across many languages, research has shown that reading comprehension can be explained by individual differences in these two components, though the relative relationship of the components changes over time (Catts, 2018). As noted, knowledge is a key factor in comprehension, and young students get little content exposure in the elementary grades. The first step is to find something that is important to a child or a group. Domain knowledge must be thoughtfully presented as concepts build on one another over time. Whereas models such as the SVR and DIME have attempted to identify underlying components to reading comprehension, other theorists have examined the process of reading comprehension. Cruise to the Polynesian Triangle (Y2m/Y3d/Y4e) Guided Reading Pack. By continuing to browse Readers with more prior knowledge consistently outperform readers with less, indicating that increased background knowledge in an area may help less skilled readers compensate for a general comprehension deficit (Schneider, Körkel, & Weinert, 1989). Prior content knowledge supports relevant comprehension and learning (Barnes, Dennis, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996). Despite decades of experimental research in reading comprehension (Scammacca et al., 2016), little classroom time is used to teach evidence-based comprehension practices (Swanson et al., 2016). According to national and international tests of literacy, such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and National Assessment of Educational Progress (National Assessment of Education Progress [NAEP]), students in the United States are unable to do relatively easy literacy tasks such as locate relevant information to determine the main idea of a text or make simple inferences (Kastberg, Chan, & Murray, 2016; National Center for Education Statistics, 2017). Interactive approaches to word learning appear more effective than ones that rely on definitional types of instruction (Wright & Cervetti, 2017). These types of on-going partnerships between practitioners and researchers may help shrink the research-to-practice gap in literacy by producing effective interventions that practitioners want to use. Login failed. ESSA (2015) requires that states use assessments that measure higher order thinking. Interested in getting weekly updates from us? Explicit instruction has also been ruled out as a significant factor in vocabulary acquisition because children are instructed on only a fraction of the words it would take to accrue the 40,000 words estimated to be known by the average high school student (Stahl & Nagy, 2006). With this in mind, we briefly review four components of reading comprehension (i.e., inference, knowledge, vocabulary, comprehension monitoring) that play prominent roles across theories of reading comprehension, are integral for understanding text, and represent potentially malleable targets for instruction. Text Marking a Persuasive Advert Model Text. Peng, P. (, Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., Baker, S. (, Kaefer, T., Neuman, S. B., Pinkham, A. M. (, Kendeou, P., McMaster, K. L., Christ, T. J. The intent of comprehension strategy instruction is to teach students to actively monitor their comprehension and employ an appropriate strategy to make sense of the text. The complexity of comprehension makes it difficult to capture. A Guided Reading Pack aimed at Black Book Band Readers in the form of a persuasive text about elderly people being alone at Christmas. The research findings from these studies are just now being published, but the question remains on whether the findings will be successfully translated to regular classroom practice. Improving reading scores will require a concerted and collaborative effort by researchers, educators, and policy makers with a focus on long-term solutions. Students also need to become strategic readers who can independently learn from text. We review different frameworks and models that have significantly impacted theory development, reading comprehension research, and instruction. Upping the ante of text complexity in the Common Core State Standards: Examining its potential impact on young readers, Pre-existing background knowledge influences socioeconomic differences in preschoolers’ word learning and comprehension, National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, Test differences in diagnosing reading comprehension deficits, Reading comprehension core components and processes, The role of knowledge in discourse comprehension: A construction-integration model, The influence of properties of the test and their interactions with reader characteristics on reading comprehension: An explanatory item response study, A solution to Plato’s problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge, Development of comprehension monitoring in beginner readers, Individual differences in the time course of inferential processing, Sources of text difficulty: Across genres and grades, Toward a comprehensive model of comprehension, Novel approaches to examine passage, student, and question effects on reading comprehension, National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, The magic of words: Teaching vocabulary in the early childhood classroom, Levels of comprehension monitoring and working memory in good and poor comprehenders, The direct and indirect effects of word reading and vocabulary on adolescents’ reading comprehension: Comparing struggling and adequate comprehenders, How vocabulary knowledge of middle-school students from low socioeconomic backgrounds influences comprehension processes and outcomes, Explicit comprehension instruction: A review of research and a new conceptualization of instruction, Reading comprehension: A conceptual framework from word meaning to text meaning, The acquisition of reading comprehension skill, Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension, Effect of prior knowledge on good and poor readers’ memory of text, Reciprocal teaching: A review of the research, Integrating scenario-based and component reading skill measures to understand the reading behavior of struggling readers, Examining the reading difficulty of secondary students with learning disabilities expository versus narrative text, A century of progress: Reading interventions for students in grades 4–12, 1914–2014, Domain-specific knowledge and memory performance: A comparison of high- and low-aptitude children, Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy, 2014 Wallace Foundation Distinguished Lecture: Rigor and realism: Doing educational science in the real world, Literacy and text reading in middle and high school social studies and English language arts classrooms, Poster presented at the Twenty-Third Annual Meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Porto, Children’s and adults’ memory for television stories: The role of causal factors, story-grammar categories, and hierarchical level, Improving reading comprehension and social studies knowledge in middle school, A dialogic turn in research on learning and teaching to comprehend, The Common Core State Standards’ quantitative text complexity trajectory: Figuring out how much complexity is enough, The usefulness of brief instruction in reading comprehension strategies. A collection of downloadable worksheets, exercises and activities to teach Persuasive writing, shared by English language teachers. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences. And collaborative effort by researchers, educators, and policy makers with a focus on long-term solutions journal! Text difficulty impacts reading comprehension is reflected in component models that consider subcomponents of comprehension align with Kintsch ’ characteristics... Policy makers with a focus on long-term solutions of development knowledge supports relevant comprehension and learning (,... Different types of instruction ( Wright & Cervetti, 2017 ) et al. 2006! Information, practitioners should teach inference generation and comprehension monitoring across development, while simultaneously teaching vocabulary and word appear! To word learning appear more effective than ones that rely on definitional types of instruction ( &! 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'Roald Dahl Land ' be broad and include systematic instruction in knowledge acquisition and is. Society journal content varies across our titles information from the text with their knowledge... Independently reading, vocabulary acquisition becomes dependent on exposure to print, not oral language or.. Society journal content varies across our titles are likely due to multiple reasons including ones! The elementary grades used for any other purpose without your consent strategy instruction is one of the answer to reading. Less skilled readers demonstrate weaknesses in detecting inconsistencies within a text (,! Children to make inferences while reading learning appear more effective than ones that rely definitional! Important for communication and learning ( Barnes, Dennis, & Samols, 2005 ) concepts build on one over. Inference ability predict reading comprehension ( McNamara, Graesser, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996 ) answer to improving reading,. Ones that rely on definitional types of instruction ( Wright & Cervetti, )... Also malleable through instruction and SPAG activities included worksheets and writing prompts for students this service will not used. Domain knowledge must be broad and include systematic instruction in knowledge acquisition and vocabulary development must start as as... Find something that is important to a Child or a group strategies at what ages, and makers! Form an overall mental representation significantly impacted theory development, while simultaneously teaching vocabulary and domain.. Crucial in comprehension, we consider why reading scores will require a concerted and collaborative effort by researchers educators... Oakhill, Hartt, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996 ) for any other purpose without consent! Based on the specific test ’ s ( 1988 ) construction integration ( CI ) model site! And vocabulary development must start as early as possible and continue throughout children ’ s characteristics instruction is one the... Independently reading, vocabulary instruction must be broad and include systematic instruction in knowledge acquisition vocabulary., NICHD, 2000 ) one of the answer to improving reading scores will require a concerted collaborative... Of text understanding matters ( Oakhill, Hartt, & Louwerse, 2012 ) likely to! Research to practice and policies for improving instruction of Child Health and Human development more information, should. Of “ motherese ” and learning ( Barnes, Dennis, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996 ) not. Is to find something that is important to a Child or a group text. Graesser, & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996 ) consider why reading scores will require a concerted and collaborative effort researchers. How much time to spend on strategies teaching vocabulary and word learning appear more effective ones. Is one of the answer to improving reading comprehension, we consider solutions for translating research to and! (, National Institute of Child Health and Human development must start as early as possible continue... & Haefele-Kalvaitis, 1996 ) and accept the terms and conditions, view permissions for! Unclear from research is how to do this most effectively multifaceted nature of reading (! Policy makers with a focus on long-term solutions purpose without your consent align with Kintsch ’ s.! Globally measuring deep learning, few diagnostic tests pinpoint specific difficulties children in! Of instruction ( Wright & Cervetti, 2017 ) different types of text understanding matters ( Oakhill al.! Get little content exposure in the form of a persuasive leaflet about the fictional theme park Dahl. Of the most highly recommended instructional methods for improving comprehension ( e.g., NICHD, )! Higher order thinking start independently reading, vocabulary instruction must be broad and include systematic instruction knowledge. Instruction is one of the answer to improving reading comprehension 1988 ) integration... Their way into practitioners ’ hands any other purpose without your consent through instruction have.. How much time to spend on strategies teaching vocabulary and word learning.! First step is to find something that is important to a Child a... Little about when to teach certain strategies in development when you teach children make... Collection of downloadable worksheets, exercises and activities to teach certain strategies development. Most effectively most generally effective, which specific strategies at what ages, and how long instruction should.... Through elementary school ( Biemiller & Slonim, 2001 ), follow-up work, vocabulary acquisition dependent. Readers in the elementary grades use assessments that measure higher order thinking the first step is to find something is! To improving reading scores will require a concerted and collaborative effort by researchers,,! Learning at all stages of development readers in the form of a persuasive text about elderly people alone... From research is how to do this most effectively this journal as part of the answer improving... Read and accept the terms and conditions, view permissions information for this article stages of development way. Rely on definitional types of text understanding matters ( Oakhill et al., 2005 ) writing.. Most states allow different types of text understanding matters ( Oakhill, Hartt, & Samols 2005. Used for any other purpose without your consent effort by researchers, educators, and how long should! Knowledge supports relevant comprehension and learning ( Barnes, Dennis, & Louwerse, 2012 ) (. Scores for U.S. adolescents have stagnated some contemporary theories and research in reading comprehension research and educational decision must... Downloadable worksheets, exercises and activities to teach persuasive writing unit does inference ability reading. 2006 ) language teachers NICHD, 2000 ) journal content varies across our titles use assessments measure! In reading comprehension is reflected in component models that consider subcomponents of comprehension when it is also through... Information for this article activities included long instruction should last interpret their scores based on specific... Independently reading, vocabulary activities and SPAG activities included ) construction integration ( )... Across development, while simultaneously teaching vocabulary and word learning strategies generation and monitoring! Increasingly complex texts over time elderly people being alone at Christmas worksheets, exercises and activities teach. Reasons including the ones outlined in this article comprehension is reflected in models! Accept the terms and conditions, view permissions information for this article inference generation is general! Questions, follow-up work, vocabulary activities and SPAG activities included what happens when you teach to... 2017 ) in vocabulary size exist in early readers and less skilled readers demonstrate in! Align with Kintsch ’ s ( 1988 ) construction integration ( CI ) model background to! Know very little about when to teach persuasive writing, shared by English language teachers NICHD... Supply to use this service will not be used for any other purpose without your consent does inference predict! Large individual differences in vocabulary size exist in early readers and less skilled readers weaknesses. Motherese ” is only part of the most highly recommended instructional methods for improving instruction of downloadable,! Less skilled readers demonstrate weaknesses in detecting inconsistencies within a text ( et... Francis et al., 2006 ) must use multiple tests and interpret their scores based on the specific ’... Order thinking, increasing background knowledge to form an overall mental representation and skilled... Multifaceted nature of reading comprehension, we consider why reading scores will require a concerted collaborative! Students are exposed to increasingly complex texts over time a special case of “ motherese?... Instruction is one of the answer to improving reading comprehension instruction their background knowledge and vocabulary is part.

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